Exploring Theme in August Wilsons Fences Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Exploring Theme in August Wilsons Fences - Essay Example Many of these restrictions and attitudes might have gone unnoticed and unremembered except for the black playwrights and authors who revealed their effects on the community as a whole. In his play Fences, August Wilson uses the concept of a fence as both a theme and a symbol to reveal the hidden boundaries his characters encounter as they attempt to achieve a modest version of the American dream in the 1950s North. The concept of invisible boundaries blocking one’s ability to reach the American Dream is the central theme of this play. The story begins on a random Friday afternoon. The play’s main character, Troy Manxson, is waiting for his latest paycheck from the city’s waste removal services department where he works somewhat unwillingly because his dreams of being a big baseball star were thwarted when he was younger by rules that prevented black men from playing in the major leagues. As the play progresses, it becomes clear that all the characters featured once had big dreams that were thwarted by the generalized lack of opportunity that applied to anyone with darker skin. In this opening scene, Troy immediately addresses the theme of the play when he tells Bono about the invisible ceilings that are constantly placed over his head, such as the boss’s reaction when Troy asked why only white men were allowed the position of garbage truck drivers. Troy’s fru stration is clear as he obviously realizes that playing for a professional team would have afforded him and his family an entirely different kind of life, and he is even held down in this lowly position working on a garbage truck. His response to the idea that things are changing and he was just born too young, Troy says, â€Å""There ought not never have been no time too early† (Wilson, Act 1, Scene 1). In spite of knowing his limitations were externally set, Troy feels he has failed

Index funds and their investment policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Index funds and their investment policy - Essay Example Unlike index funds, actively managed funds aim to reach results, which exceed whole market results or some of its components. It's important for their managers to select the stocks, necessary to buy, correctly, and also to define exactly the best selling/purchasing moment. Unlike actively managed funds, which aim to reach results, which exceed whole market results or some of its components (it's important for their managers to select the stocks, necessary to buy, correctly, and also to define exactly the best selling/purchasing moment), index funds demonstrate more passive investment strategy. Index funds invest assets to some basic asset classes, each of them characterized by its own flights and drops. That's why combinations of investing into funds, based on various indexes allow reaching some balance, reducing the risk and increasing invested money return. There are five five members, who represent Standard & Poor's and the ASX. They set policy, determ index composition and administer the indices in accordance with the S&P/ASX index methodology. The investment policy includes adding, removing or by-passing any company or during the selection process. And what about the portfolio investment... An index addition generally will be made only if an index vacancy is created by an index deletion. The Index Committee determines S&P/ASX index additions based on historic analysis of a stock's market capitalization, free float, and liquidity. The Fund is a style-based fund that seeks to provide a total return that is broadly in line with the S&P/ASX 200 Index (excluding listed property trusts) before taking into account Fund fees and expenses. The Fund is targeting a grossed-up dividend yield that is 1% above that of the index. Grossed-up dividend yield is calculated taking into account both cash dividends and associated franking credits. Surely, the Committee analyses every merger, spin-off, acquisition, or scheme of arrangement. Index funds are popular among investors thanks to their wide portfolio diversification, low expenses and high efficiency from taxation point. 2. ASX200 composition determining and it's changing. There are indexes for some certain market branches (municipal, technological, financial etc.), regions and states and even different investment styles. For instance, "growth" indexes are composed from the stocks of the companies, which are waited to demonstrate fast profit growth tempos, while "cost" indexes - from the stocks, which can be undervalued on the base of financial results or company assets. The S&P/ASX 200 Index is recognized as one of the leading investment benchmarks for the Australian equity market. The index represents the 200 largest and most liquid publicly listed entities in Australia. The S&P/ASX 200 Index provides investors and fund managers with an effective benchmark for Australian equity performance, as it offers a broader representation of the Australian market. What companys' stocks are included in ASX 200 list The

Neoliberalism Ideology Of Privatisation

Neoliberalism Ideology Of Privatisation In favour of Globalisation, the Neoliberals suggest that the privatisation and trans-nationalisation of capital is desirable and inevitable from a socio economic development. 1.0 Introduction One of the main outcomes of neo-liberalism in IPE (International political Economy) in economic reforms is Privatisation. To develop my argument, I will look at the arguments of neo-liberalism in favour of privatisation and trans-nationalisation of capital through globalisation. The idea of globalisation has grown to be one of the generally effective in socio economic development as well as raises the global cross boarder in term of social, economic and cultural. To day the terms World economy, world market and globalisation are commonplace, appearing in the sound bites of politicians (Dunn: 188). The debate of the above three vectors relate with economic competition and privatisation try to increase world interdependent and become desirable and inevitable process. Afterwards globalisation is rising attractive a controversial subject whether it can really be important in socio economic development and improve human welfare. A number of scholars in this part come across not so convincingly to provide or even concur that relation between globalisation and privatisation in terms of free competition and free trade (worldwide capital mobility) lead to economic effectiveness, welfare and democracy. To my understanding, globalisation is an important but not adequate circumstance to hasten socio economic. PURPOSE. The foundation of this essay is to essentially examine how aspects of globalisation with privatisation and trans-nationalisation of capital are either important desirable in socio economic improvement. The essay will begin by introducing the concepts of globalisation and will explain Neoliberals perspective on globalisation and its effects on socio economic using different readings, lectures, Journals and my individual observation concerning to the issue. The primary part of this essay will demonstrate the neoliberal arguments in favour of privatisation and trans-nationalisation of capital and its contribution of economic o the process of accelerated economic growth and poverty reduction. Secondly, it will examine some view and criticism and or challenges associated from other perspectives for concerning arguments. Finally, I will draw a conclusion based on review findings. 1.2 CONCEPTS. The idea of globalisation is global change relate with connections of social, cultural, economic and political between actors across the globe. (Robinson: 1999). According to Todaro, globalisation is increasing integrations of national economies into expanding international markets. The above information explains that the process of globalisation try to make a global single set. Indeed Gill accepts that globalisation is part of broad process of restructuring of state and civil society and political economy culture. He emphasizes that It is ideology largely consistent with the world view and political priorities of large- scale internationally mobile forms of capital. Mobility of resources is very crucial in development, investment and services for increasing internationally interconnection and commonly world economy. The OECD1 handbook on Economic Globalisation Indicators explained that the term globalisation has been widely used to describe the increasing internationalisation of fin ancial market and of markets for goods and services. In this regards the integrations of capital labour and financial services is very important for economic inter-reliance. The Concept of neo-liberalism is a set of economic policies that have become widespread during the last two decade. Martinez 1996. Indeed (Cerny, 2008), explained that, during 1980s neo-liberalism was related with International Relation while 1990s focus on economic and liberalisation in International Political Economy. Thorsen agrees that is used to describe a range of policies and an economic philosophy that stress international free trade, economic liberalism or capitalism and the promotion of such through deregulation privatisation and liberalisation of nation economies. He highlights that, the term neo liberalism also used to imply that is a new form of economic liberalism more commonly known as capitalism but on global scale. In this logic the neoliberals relate with open of trans-nationalisation of capital and liberation of enterprises and state linking the appearance of market civilisation. Mean while, (Gill1995) agrees that neoliberal macroeconomic policies, aligned to the ideology of the competition state, hence the competition through the privatisation is more essential and enhance global interconnection on socio economic growth. According to sheikh (2004) neoliberals dominants modern globalisation. Its practices are justified by asset of theoretical claim rooted in standard economic theory. Market is represented as optimal and self regulating social structure. It is claimed that if market must be allowed to function with out restraint. Therefore, neoliberals believe that the role of government is to provide public service and markets will adjustment naturally. Neo-liberalism perspective with globalisation reflects on international competitiveness, the policy might engage in recreation of a role in improving international economy. Hirst (2009) at el accepts that, to neo-liberalism international competitiveness as the characteristic modality of international economic governance. It involves political compromise including diplomatic bargaining between countries to establish compromises on trade policy as exemplified by the GATT mechanism. A long with this for neo-liberalism emphasis on the political bargaining is very significant the exercise of international market entrance. 2. Privatisation and Trans-nationalisation of Capital. Before the description and explanation of the neo-liberalism arguments in favour of privatisation. I will describe in short the meaning of privatisation In generally. According to Todaro 2009 the privatisation of state owned enterprises in the production and financial sectors, hinges on orthodox hypothesis that private ownership brings greater efficiency and more rapid growth In addition he emphasise that privatisation improves efficiency, increase outputs and lower costs to reduce public internal and external debt, and promotes individuals initiatives while rewarding entrepreneurship. In this regards states by implementing this policy leads to improve growth and increase in the rational choice for consumer and socio economic level. Martinez (1996) agrees that privatisation sell state-owned enterprises, goods and services to private investors. This includes banks, key industries, railroads, toll highways, electricity, schools, hospitals and even fresh water. Although usually done in the name of greater efficiency, which is often needed, privatization has mainly had the effect of concentrating wealth even more in a few hands and making the public pay even more for its needs. In general privatisation is very crucial on world economy yet it is increasingly becoming a debated issue whether it can improve the economy or make it is worse situation especially in developing Countries. Related with trans-nationalisation of capital is a kind of recent capitalism connected with hegemonic tool for analysis of transitional economy. Capital transnationalisation can be transferred through different type in terms of and goods and service capital, financial capital, and productive capital. Bina (1991) agrees that there are three ways of trans-nationalisation in world economy (i) Concentration and centralisation of capital both in manufacturing (industrial capital) and financial capital. (ii) The formation of finance capital and further development of credits system for expanded reproduction and the consequent internationalisation of all circuits of capital and globalisation and production through the medium of transnational cooperation (TNCs). However economic labour movement and financial flow become considerable society in the age of globalisation. Labour is directly related to the reason of advanced capitalism. This requires an inspection of requirements of the politica l economy of today trans-nationalisation. Cerny 2008 argue that for neo-liberalism contemporary politics entails both a process of choosing between version of neo-liberalism, and the attempt to innovate creativity within the new neoliberal playing field including open trade capital flows embedded financial orthodoxy, the regulatory state, privatisation and hybrid forms of governance are the bottom line of neo-liberalism. In theory, it offers prediction of amendment of political institutions increase of economic globalisation. The argument of neo-liberalism paradigm base on free market and privatisation has encouraging effects in social impartiality. Moreover they believe in freedom of movement for capital commodities, it advocates the opportunity of economies and competition in the world market in situation of complete freedom. Hirst agrees that economic performance measures through competitiveness. Idea of competitiveness relate with comparative advantages that is different countries lead each country will capable to acquire other product at al lower resources cost less hours. Moreover, Makwana (2006) agrees that neoliberals claims that privatized services are more capable than those run by state. They consider that market competition and collaborate effectiveness can drive prices drive prices down for consumers. Furthermore, the eventual goal of neoliberal economic globalisation to eliminate of all barriers to trade and the privatisation of all accessible resources and service. In addition, Cerny 2008. state that, neo-liberalism focus on relatively dogmatic, enforced laissez-faire doctrine, it involves first of all an acceptance that we live in multilevel, more open and market like globalisation world in which informal and negotiated policy process prevails for neoliberals open market and globalisation is very significant for neoliberal market civilisation (Gill 1995) which is linking social well being on broad around the world economy system. Another explanation from (Cerny: 2008) reiterates that, neoliberals public policies, whether at national, regional or international level do not merely constrains but also bring opportunities. In theory, through Structural Adjustment policies allows poor to possess and be accountable for recovering their lives changes themselves relatively than the system. As I mentioned earlier that, transformation of capital may occur in term of manufacturing and financial aspects there is empirical evidence that some of countries benefited with privatisation policy. (Calva: 2003) accepts that, in Costa Rica four company privatise and reported that increasing 9 percentages of GDP in 1998.this means that shares of GDP reduce deficit in GDP. Another evidence which (Calva 2003) provided that increase of production in industrial sector, he highlighted that Russian and Mexico is among of countries achieved in by privatisation. The above example provided, demonstrate for neoliberals ideology of privatisation had positive aspects in economic sector. Different with neoliberals perspectives, realist theories highlighted that competitiveness and privatisation is not a solution for social well being on broad around the world. Bayliss (2005) agreed that, in developing countries, privatisation, in common with the wider neo-liberal policy agenda, has failed to meet expectations. Privatisation efforts have been undermined by various factors, including weak political commitment, poor investor supply response and institutional challenges. He emphasis that since the late 1990s, the language of privatisation has softened (as, for example, private sector participation has replaced privatisation). In additional to that, realism scholars argues that globalisation has not succeeded to promote market economy in world market. It gears an inequality of market between North and South. Stiglitz agrees there is disproportionate share of benefits, at the expense of the developing worlds. Therefore a consequence of this situation consequence was some poorest countries in the world turn into worse off. Private investment sector is useful in socio economic especially for countries that lacks of capital, including piece of equipments and expertise. Stiglitz (2006:) accepts that, for privatisation policy of world economy to meet the demand for their skill labour increase, and wages of unskilled labour become higher he emphasized that if labour moves from a country where productivity and wages are low to one where they are high, the increase in out put can be enormous and worlds economy grows. The Marxist perspectives, argues that privatisation is related with capital accumulation. Dunn 2006 agrees that private capitalist accumulate capital by making investment decisions within logic of profit maximization. He emphasizes that privatisation in capitalist counties dont directly interfere in investments decisions or in the market, but rather provide legitimation and order, using its power primary to guarantee external defense and internal peace consistence with the institutions of private property, therefore they emphasizes that globalisation serves an interest maximisation of profit inter of capital trans-nationalisation and intercontinental trade other than ideology. For Marxist discipline, globalisation relates with expansion of capital accumulation and should be profitable the working class Hossein (2005) agrees that for many Marxist in recent decades, capitalism is key its nature a globally expanding system geared to accumulation on a world scale. To some extent Marxist believe that ideology of competition between capitalist countries facilitate currently instability for the world capitalist economy. 3.0: Critics of Globalisation, Privatisation and trans-nationalisation. This paper has assessed the privatisation and trans-nationalisation idea of neoliberals facilitate socio economic world. Policy of privatisation to large extent the development helps to increase job creation, trade competition and rational choice for consumer. Yet it features some challenges. As I illustrated in the beginning, trans-nationalisation of capital is kind of hegemonic capitalist system, this is more appropriate part of global political economy in capitalist production and finance. This reflects the rising domination of transnational cooperation (TNC) of having hegemonic actors (North part) in world economy. Roboson 2004 agrees that, there is evidence that a transnational class is gaining hegemony over local- and national-based capitalists including the spread of TNCs, increase in foreign direct investment (FDI), cross border mergers and acquisitions, transnational interlocked directorships, and strategic alliances. This situation changes stability of classes forces that has completed likely that attack on unions. For neoliberals structural Adjustments policies is appropriate and its implementation but in reality the application of Shock therapy implementation of SAP in Africa and other areas resulted in increase in economic shock and other abjection results Protozos 2004 agreed that over 15 years of IMF / World Bank management of Tanzanias economy saw its per capital GDP drop from $ 309 to $ 210 and rate of abject poverty jumped to 51 percent of the population. Moreover the Implementation of SAP are forced as condition for loans, hence the repayments of loans affects budget of the developing countries. In addition Protozons argue that SAP structural Adjustment Programme are imposed renegotiating debts, and on condition that the receipts country accepts privatisation, capital market liberalisation, market based pricing and reduction in subsidies for public services such as water, food and utilities. This has therefore resulted was disintegration of their economies and hence catastrophic for developing countries. Competiveness of trade is myth to increase sustainable of true competitiveness. Unfortunately, this major reason that leads to divergences and differences between North and South. Hirst 2009 agrees that, the emerging market economies might threaten the competitive position of the traditional developed countries of the North, which in countries is threatened by cheap goods and labour, the growth of South cheap goods and labour which one of aspects hinder trade competition. Indeed Curtis 2005 argues that in Pakistan increasing foreign competition in fisheries a sector is edging 300,000 local fisher folk out of market. This evaluate that private company distorted local market since local companies does not compete due to different obstacles. Private investment sector was usual to consequence in job formation. In reality restructuring has been accompanied with retrenchments. Stiglitz (2006) accepts that, privatisation policy failed to meet commitments to world economy to many development countries around the world when they liberalized so fast that the private sector did not have time to respond and create new jobs, or when interest rates were so high that the private sector could not affords to make the investments necessary to create new jobs. There fore unemployment rate increases in economic system. 4. Conclusion. In conclusion this paper argues on that globalisation and privatisation and trans-nationalisation in world economy. To a great degree, privatisation helps to facilitate and improves in different sectors management job opportunities socio and economic development growth in North side rather then South side. Above of the mentioned challenges / critics and other factors may cause that implementation of globalisation and tarns-nationalisation and privatisation be uneven. Moreover, the concept of globalisation exhibits affirmative forms of thought, including economic effectiveness, wellbeing and democracy. For neo-liberalism ideology of privatisation is away cut off hegemonic power between North and South which exist, yet the process seem failed to meet its commitments. Furthermore, the elementary strategy of neoliberal is focusing on rising freedom both political and economic aspects. The practice and performance of neoliberal ideology has been reliable every where in the world. Privatisation in developing countries is universal with the wide neoliberals strategy programme has failed to meet expectation. (Curtis 2005) accepts that, In South Africa, water privatisation has meant that half of million people were cut off non payment of their water bills during of their water bills during a three month period in 2001 out break of cholera has been also been reported as families resort to drawing water pollution rivers. In this regards, the policy move emerged in response to apparent failures in the public sector particular in Sub Sahara Africa. Finally, I have drawn the conclusion, why neoliberal thought of globalisation through free trade policy not working? And what can be done in order to make globalisation run for more people. In my view damaged by different factors, together with weak political obligation, underprivileged investor supply response and institutional challenges. However there is tendency of TNCs exercise several strategies to reduce their declared income in developing country including transfer pricing and be liable to move most of declared profits elsewhere of the host country. On top on that, developing countries should provide sufficient data for foreign investors; hence it helps more promoted achievement. In developing countries, privatisation can place substantial demands on an already stretched and destabilized public sector, both in terms of functioning and rule of the privatised enterprises. Therefore manufacturing sector productivity is smaller and low-income economies due, in part, to an amalgamation of hi-tech dependence What do poor countries require to perform to reap the utmost benefit from globalisation? For my view that, developed countries should to reduce boundaries against import of African products. Public Sectors including provision of water, education and health might be clearly excluded from privatisation. Poor countries have to have right of entry to substantial special action to look after their frail economies from foreign competition. Developed countries should implements the Article 66 of TRIPS2 agreement, which requires developed countries to make available incentives encouraging transfer of technology. In addition to that, industrial countries should implement well article 22, 23, and 24 Howard 2009 agrees that, article 22,23,24 allow government to protect good name of product from certain regions in their countries, this helps developing countries to have a property of use of trade mark and geographical protection for produce a specific commodities. Last but not least a major aspect for implementation of privatisation is political stability. Ajay 2001 argue that, Good governance and accountability and trustworthy and independency of national institutions is very crucial condition for growth. To summarise, state should play its role well, where market failure and international developments agencies try to equalized and avoided to implements globalisation and other policies by dominants of unilaterally or us hegemony.

Differences in the Education Quality That Students Receive Due to Techn

Differences in the Education Quality That Students Receive Due to Technology: Wealthy Private Schools vs. Inner City Schools Technology in schools is becoming increasingly more important. Computers in the classroom have become not only a learning aid, but also a necessity for the educational process. However, computers, Internet access, televisions, and other such technological advancements cost money, a lot of money. President's Panel on Educational Technology recommends that the government spend anywhere from six to twenty-eight billion dollars each year on an ambitious program of computer infrastructure development (both hardware and software), teacher training, and research (Johnson, 2000). In spite of the necessity of technology in schools, many children are being deprived of this basic need. Most of the children that aren’t getting these advances are children who live in inner city areas. The budget for inner city schools is drastically lower than the budget than a suburban school or private institution. This affects the way students learn and eventually the way the enter today’s work force. Technology in schools has advanced tremendous amounts in an incredibly short time span. Just a little over a decade ago, schools were just jumping on new â€Å"computer in the classroom† bandwagon. So-called ‘good’ schools would have anywhere from one to twenty computers, only some with Internet access. Now, as we enter the turn of the twenty-first century, it would be difficult to find a school without a computer with Internet access in every classroom. Between September 1984 and September 1997 alone, the number of computers in America's K-12 schools increased eleven fold to more than 8 million units The use of computers h... ...learning; opportunties for change. Mahwah, NJ: L. Erlbaum. Golba, A. (n.d.). How does education in urban schools compare to suburban schools?. Retrieved Apr. 11, 2005, from http://www.iusb.edu/~journal/1998/Paper5.html. Johnson, Kirk A. Do Computers in the Classroom Boost Academic Achievement? 14 June 2000. Heritage Foundation. 5 May 2004 . Wulf, S. (1997). What makes a good school teach our children well?. , , 62-93. Hartland, F. (n.d.). Retrieved Apr. 11, 2005, from http://www.isoc.org/inet96/proceedings/c2/c2_1.html. Stevenson, H. J. (2004). Teachers informal collabortaion regarding technology. Journal of Research or Technology in Education, 37(2), 129. Peterson, C. L. (2004). Online compared to face to face teacher preparation for learning standards based planning skills. , 36(4), 345.

Return to Paradise Essay

Return to Paradise Return to Paradise is a film that has a lot of meanings within the story line. But also has many ethical issues among the morals that are in today’s society. Three ethical issues in the film are capital punishment, drug use, and media treatment. Capital punishment is an ethical issue because it is highly opinionated. Some people believe that people shouldn’t have to die to pay for their crime, while others believe that death is the best way to pay for what they’ve done as a consequence. This makes an argument that if someone has killed another human, should they be killed too? It makes it hard in different countries as their laws may be different and death penalties can really occur and happen. Drug use is also an ethical issue because they believe they aren’t harming anyone and a majority of the drug users want illicit drugs to be legalised. A lot of today’s society argues that the drug users affect more than just themselves such us driving under the influence of drugs, can lead to other innocent people into serious injuries or death in a crash. Media treatment is another ethical issue in the film; this is because M.J Major wanted the story to get out so bad it was more important than Lewis’s life. This is an ethical issue because the media have the rights to tell the story to the public but in a bit to try save Lewis’s life instead of just telling the story. In the start of the film, Sheriff was completely an individual and his worldview was all about himself and what he wanted to do; what is best for him. Sheriff was also a pleasure seeker and really only cared for the wellbeing of himself. For example, when Tony, Sheriff and Lewis were riding a bike they borrowed and crashed it, Lewis wanted it to return it to the owner but sheriff didn’t want to get into trouble and threw the bike away. Also Sheriff left all the hash they had in a bin outside of the house where Lewis stayed and the cops found out about that and bike. When Sheriff found out that Lewis was in prison, he definitely didn’t want to go back, he thought about spending 3-6 years in prison for someone else and didn’t want it. Sheriff then fell in love with Beth. After he found out that Beth was Lewis’s sister, he realised what he wanted and knew his mistakes, with this his worldview changed. In court he confessed to all the crimes that had been put on Lewis, taking responsibility for his actions really was a change of person. Sheriff had  developed a humanistic world view and also a Christian view on life. He believed at the end that every life was worth just as much as his own, and that everyone deserves to live and have the same rights. Throughout the film in the plot and themes, the film promotes and encourages Christian values and ethics. The film shows and promotes these values and ethics through the character of Sheriff. At the start of the movie, Sheriff was a selfish and individual person, but towards the end of the movie he became a loving and caring person, thinking of others and not about himself. It is a noticeable change when he just starts thinking of others. To show the Christian values, they promote them through Sheriff about helping and thinking of others, compassion and that everyone’s life is worth as much as your own. This is also shown when Sheriff stops thinking of the wellbeing of himself and really tries to help Lewis. Sheriff was willing to give up a bit of his life to save Lewis’s life. Sheriff shows human value by going back to Malaysia and not leaving with Tony, he also fell in love and Beth became a big part in showing him the right way. Just before Lewis died Sheriff was showing great compassion to Lewis making sure he knew he wasn’t alone and everyone was there for him.

Why is it difficult to define a “new social movement”?

When one thinks of â€Å"new social movements† (NSM's) it is fair to say that a number of images may spring into peoples' minds. To some, Swampy chaining himself to a tree will automatically be imagined, for others, they may think of the anti-globalisation protests in Seattle or on the streets of London. The fact is that both of these ideas come under this broad title and it is for that reason that it can de difficult to define exactly what is meant by an NSM. This essay will attempt to address why NSM's have come into existence, which sections of society choose to become involved and how these groups operate. Having done this, the essay will then attempt to show why defining an NSM is problematic. It is fair to say that most people who choose to participate in NSM's do so because they feel that conventional politics does not or has not dealt with the issues that they feel are important. It is, therefore, the aim of the NSM's to highlight these issues and bring them to the attention of either the politicians or the general public in the hope that government policy will adopt a different strategy. It has been said that â€Å"one repeated motif in the discussion of new social movements is the view that they are, in contrast to older movements, primarily social or cultural in nature and only secondary, if at all, political. † (Scott, 1990:16). What Alan Scott is saying here is that the main ideas behind social movements are the attempts to change the way society exist as a whole and not necessarily the way people view their politics. Being part of a social movement is not just a way of thinking; it is a belief in a certain ideal that transcends all aspects of your life. In this way, it can be said that NSM's are expressive in their views as opposed to political parties, who are instrumental. An NSM is not necessarily motivated by achieving a pre-set goal but by the belief itself. This is one reason that can explain why members or ‘adherents' of social movements are fully prepared to make self-sacrifices, such as imprisonment, for their cause. One important ramification of this is that the adherents to social movements are prepared to step outside the law to achieve their goals. This creates a very serious dilemma for governments because if people are prepared to act illegally then the threat of legal action will not act as a deterrent. In other words, if people have a strong enough will then in the end, there is nothing to stop them. As Russell Dalton and Manfred Kuechler wrote â€Å"the new social movement approach claims that many NSM's intentionally remain outside the institutionalized framework of government. † (Dalton et al. , 1990:14). The NSM's prefer to remain in this position to avoid being forced to compromise their goals. What this suggests is that NSM's actively promote criminal behaviour and rationalize it by saying that it is for a good cause. However, in a survey conducted by Alan Marsh in 1977, it was found that 55 per cent of the people questioned believed that â€Å"it is justified to break the law to protest about something you feel may be very unjust or harmful. † (Byrne, 1997:4). Although these activities are illegal, the majority of people are prepared to act as such anyway. This illustrates the complications that arise when one tries to define NSM's. On the one hand, you could say that they choose to be troublemakers, committing crimes and illegal protests, but on the other hand, you see that in fact a substantial proportion of the population shares their views on the appropriate course of action. A major difficulty with trying to define NSM's is to distinguish with what exactly we are dealing. What is meant by this is what sort or group of people or section of society do we class as a new social movement? For example, we would class feminists and green activists as social movements but this also leads to difficulty in defining what an NSM actually is. In terms of ideology, feminists and green activists have little in common yet they would both fall into the category of NSM's. A very extreme example of this is the Al' Queida terrorist network and the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND). These two groups could not be more different if they tried but to a certain extent they can both be classed as social movements. On the one hand, you have the CND, an organisation at the heart of the Peace Movement, whose â€Å"supporters have employed tactics which extend from serious academic work on the probable effects of nuclear warfare, to mass demonstrations, and to a wide variety of non-violent direct action. † (Byrne, 1997:11). On the other hand, you have the Al' Queida terrorist network, the alliance responsible for the September 11th attack upon New York's World Trade Centre and the Pentagon. This group is responsible for the deaths of thousands of innocent people – the CND, however, call for an end to weapons of mass destruction. How then can you class the Al' Queida terrorist network as a social movement? Its members are willing to step outside the conventional channels to achieve their goals. They are prepared to fight and die for their cause as long as by their death they have advanced towards their end goal – the destruction of the US. The Al' Queida is one extreme example of how an NSM can be described as irrational and unreasonable. Their adherents are not motivated by self-interest but by their unbreakable belief in the cause. They also seem to think that they are justified in breaking the law or ignoring any kind of conventional methods. Here we can see how defining a NSM can be made difficult. The spectrum when it comes to social movements is so diversified that it leads to problems in terms of what can and cannot be included. It is difficult to comprehend that two such different groups can be classified under the same heading. The Al' Queida terrorist network is, to a certain extent, an example of how NSM's choose to exist in terms of their structure. The Al' Queida exists with more recognizable members, such as Osama Bin Laden, but the fact remains that if he were to be captured or killed then that would have little effect on the remainder of the group. The adherents will still believe in their cause and they will still do all they can to realize their vision. Of course, this is a very extreme example of a NSM and when we look at more mainstream groups the structure is less militant but the basic ideas remain the same. On a whole, NSM's attempt to avoid the hierarchical approach of the conventional political parties and instead choose to opt for a more co-operative system. The CND is actually an example of how a structured organisation can exist within the informally organized Peace Movement. It is difficult to describe the structure of an NSM as even the word ‘structure' suggests some kind of organisation. Referring to NSM's as groups also causes problems as this suggests that there would be some kind of hierarchy when in fact, as Brand et al. suggest â€Å"New social movement theorists maintain that these groups prefer a decentralized, open, and democratic structure that is more in tune with the participatory tendencies of their supporters. † (Dalton et al. , 1990:13). It is clear that NSM's choose to steer away from creating any formal structure as to avoid becoming the political parties that they are attempting to influence. The structure of NSM's has strong links with their ideology. NSM's are inclined to believe more in a co-operative society where every person has his or her own personal space in which they have the right to exist and the right to choose how they wish to live their lives. This means that NSM's have no leaders as such due to the adherents wish to maintain a sense of autonomy. To many adherents of social movements it is important for them as individuals to maintain their rights to exist as they see fitting. The idea of autonomy is of great importance when trying to discuss NSM's and the fact that they demand various aspects of this autonomy adds weight to the arguments for difficulty with definition. The first aspect is personal autonomy. The idea that adherents have the social ‘space' to grow as individuals and develop their own views and ideas, as opposed to being limited by constraints placed upon them by society. An example of this sort of autonomy can be found when we look at the Women's movement of the early seventies. Here women were not only fighting for their sex as a whole but for their own personal right to equality within the male dominated system. The Women's movement is also a good example of the second aspect of autonomy: that of group autonomy. Here we can consider the issue of abortion and the rights of women. This issue can be evaluated on both levels: personal and as a group. On a personal level, the efforts of the movement mean that the choice is there and whichever path is chosen is not dictated by anyone other than the parties involved. The women's movement fought for the rights of all women to choose whether or not to have abortions so that no matter what background you come from or what religion you are, every woman has the right to choose. The third aspect of autonomy is described as the ‘autonomy of struggle', which is to say â€Å"the insistence that the movement and those it represents be allowed to fight their own corner without interference from other movements, and without subordinating their demands to other external priorities. † (Scott, 1990:20). We now see that this issue of autonomy is very important to NSM's. A social movement sees itself through its own rights and the rights of its adherents to live their lives in a certain fashion. This leads on to the idea of a social movement helping people to define themselves in terms of their place in society. This is prime example of how adherents differ to members of conventional political parties. A Conservative does not really have to make any concessions upon his or her lifestyle in order to be a member of the Conservative party but being an environmentalist is about a change in how one acts in general. What this illustrates is the argument that NSM's do not necessarily take action towards political reform but in fact towards social reform. One of the main elements that makes defining NSM's so difficult is who makes up the adherents of these movements. Over the last thirty years, there has been an increase in the so-called new politics but can this all being attributed to the uprising of the student movement or are the adherents far more diversified? As has already been mentioned, different people have different views on what they consider to be an NSM. Are we supposed to believe that all adherents are in fact longhaired, unwashed students who have nothing better to do with their time that form squatter camps and disrupt building work? The classical approach to NSM's suggests that most adherents turn to social movements due to relative deprivation. The idea that they are somehow incapable of participating in conventional politics so they choose NSM's as an alternative. However, when classicalists looked at the type of people involved in the civil rights movement in the US during the fifties and sixties, they found that it was not only the alienated black population that was involved but also the white middle class. The theory of ‘resource mobilization' was put forward as an alternative to the classical theory. Here, the authors of the theory believed that participation in NSM's was to do with resources. What ‘resources' mean is the availability of finances, office space and other intangible assets such as time and education. It suggests that there has been an evolution of the middle class to include people such as teachers and lecturers who have created a class not through economic wealth but through their knowledge and intelligence. The typical adherent to NSM's is far from the image of a tree-hugging extremist but is, in fact, a member of this new middle class, a technocrat. What are the reasons behind this? That is a hard question to answer but Ronald Inglehart suggested the theory of ‘post-materialism'. â€Å"Inglehart argues that the post-war generation have been socialized into such higher order or ‘post-material' values, and its this which motivates their support for social movements. † (Byrne, 1997:55). Here, the argument is that the people who choose to become involved in NSM's are those who feel that they have achieved all the material possessions that they can and are therefore, looking for some other kind of personal fulfillment. This theory holds a number of flaws, for example, how can Inglehart be sure that people would choose to become involved in social movements instead of charity work in their quest for personal fulfillment? Another problem arises when you try to quantify the level of material wealth that constitutes satisfaction and at which point the person decides to give up the search for more money. However, the fact remains that it has become more apparent over the years that it is this new middle class that is the typical adherents to the NSM's but it has not become clear why it is this group. The fact is that these new social movements choose to exist outside the conventional channels of politics. They do not have the same structure as the mainstream political parties as they are not supposed to be as such. They are an ideology that is followed through choice and lead to more extreme measures than usual politics to the extent that adherents make a lifestyle decision. The difficulty in defining NSM's comes from all aspects of their existence. The title of a social movement covers such a diverse range of beliefs and ideas that any kind of set rules will ultimately fail as no statement can be truly all-inclusive. Neither would NSM's want to be able to be defined as it goes against all the ideals for which they stand – the ideals of a hierarchy free alliance where the emphasis is on co-operation and not leadership. This statement itself causes problems, as it is a sweeping generalization of the group of social movements as a whole. The difficulties of defining new social movements appear because of the fact that no two movements or beliefs are exactly the same.